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Directly computes derivatives from ordinary Python functions using auto differentiation. The technique directly computes the desired derivatives to full precision without resorting to symbolic math and without making estimates bases on numerical methods.

The module provides a Num class for "dual" numbers that performs both regular floating point math on a value and its derivative at the same time. In addition, the module provides drop-in substitutes for most of the functions in the math module. There are also tools for partial derivatives, directional derivatives, gradients of scalar fields, and the curl and divergence of vector fields.

Python, 387 lines
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'Toolkit for automatic-differentiation of Python functions'

# Resources for automatic-differentiation:
# https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_differentiation
# https://justindomke.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/
# http://www.autodiff.org/

from __future__ import division
import math

##  Dual Number Class  #####################################################

class Num(float):
    ''' The auto-differentiation number class works likes a float
        for a function input, but all operations on that number
        will concurrently compute the derivative.

        Creating Nums
        -------------
        New numbers are created with:  Num(x, dx)
        Make constants (not varying with respect to x) with:  Num(3.5)
        Make variables (that vary with respect to x) with:  Num(3.5, 1.0)
        The short-cut for Num(3.5, 1.0) is:  Var(3.5)

        Accessing Nums
        --------------
        Convert a num back to a float with:  float(n)
        The derivative is accessed with:  n.dx
        Or with a the short-cut function:  d(n)

        Functions of One Variable
        -------------------------
        >>> f = lambda x:  cos(2.5 * x) ** 3
        >>> y = f(Var(1.5))                     # Evaluate at x=1.5
        >>> y                                   # f(1.5)
        -0.552497105486732
        >>> y.dx                                # f'(1.5)
        2.88631746797551

        Partial Derivatives and Gradients of Multi-variable Functions
        -------------------------------------------------------------

        The tool can also be used to compute gradients of multivariable
        functions by making one of the inputs variable and the keeping
        the remaining inputs constant:

        >>> f = lambda x, y:  x*y + sin(x)
        >>> f(2.5, 3.5)                         # Evaluate at (2.5, 3.5)
        9.348472144103956
        >>> d(f(Var(2.5), 3.5))                 # Partial with respect to x
        2.6988563844530664
        >>> d(f(2.5, Var(3.5)))                 # Partial with respect to y
        2.5
        >>> gradient(f, (2.5, 3.5))
        (2.6988563844530664, 2.5)

        See:  https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?lk=3&i=grad(x*y+%2B+sin(x))

    '''
    # Tables of Derivatives:
    # http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/math/derfunc.html
    # http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/pdf/Common_Derivatives_Integrals.pdf
    # http://www.nps.edu/Academics/Schools/GSEAS/Departments/Math/pdf_sources/BlueBook27.pdf
    # https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?lk=3&i=d%2Fdx(u(x)%5E(v(x)))

    __slots__ = ['dx']

    def __new__(cls, value, dx=0.0):
        if isinstance(value, cls): return value
        inst = float.__new__(cls, value)
        inst.dx = dx
        return inst

    def __add__(u, v):
        return Num(float(u) + float(v), d(u) + d(v))

    def __sub__(u, v):
        return Num(float(u) - float(v), d(u) - d(v))

    def __mul__(u, v):
        u, v, du, dv = float(u), float(v), d(u), d(v)
        return Num(u * v, u * dv + v * du)

    def __truediv__(u, v):
        u, v, du, dv = float(u), float(v), d(u), d(v)
        return Num(u / v, (v * du - u * dv) / v ** 2.0)

    def __pow__(u, v):
        u, v, du, dv = float(u), float(v), d(u), d(v)
        return Num(u ** v,
                   (v * u ** (v - 1.0) * du  if du else 0.0) +
                   (math.log(u) * u ** v * dv if dv else 0.0))

    def __floordiv__(u, v):
        return Num(float(u) // float(v), 0.0)

    def __mod__(u, v):
        u, v, du, dv = float(u), float(v), d(u), d(v)
        return Num(u % v, du - u // v * dv)

    def __pos__(u):
        return u

    def __neg__(u):
        return Num(-float(u), -d(u))

    __radd__ = __add__
    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def __rsub__(self, other):
        return -(self - other)

    def __rtruediv__(self, other):
        return Num(other) / self

    def __rpow__(self, other):
        return Num(other) ** self

    def __rmod__(u, v):
        return Num(v) % u

    def __rfloordiv__(self, other):
        return Num(other) // self

    def __abs__(self):
        return self if self >= 0.0 else -self

##  Convenience Functions  #################################################
Var = lambda x: Num(x, 1.0)
d = lambda x: getattr(x, 'dx', 0.0)

##  Math Module Functions and Constants  ###################################
sqrt = lambda u: Num(math.sqrt(u), d(u) / (2.0 * math.sqrt(u)))
log = lambda u: Num(math.log(u), d(u) / float(u))
log2 = lambda u: Num(math.log2(u), d(u) / (float(u) * math.log(2.0)))
log10 = lambda u: Num(math.log10(u), d(u) / (float(u) * math.log(10.0)))
log1p = lambda u: Num(math.log1p(u), d(u) / (float(u) + 1.0))
exp = lambda u: Num(math.exp(u), math.exp(u) * d(u))
expm1 = lambda u: Num(math.expm1(u), math.exp(u) * d(u))
sin = lambda u: Num(math.sin(u), math.cos(u) * d(u))
cos = lambda u: Num(math.cos(u), -math.sin(u) * d(u))
tan = lambda u: Num(math.tan(u), d(u) / math.cos(u) ** 2.0)
sinh = lambda u: Num(math.sinh(u), math.cosh(u) * d(u))
cosh = lambda u: Num(math.cosh(u), math.sinh(u) * d(u))
tanh = lambda u: Num(math.tanh(u), d(u) / math.cosh(u) ** 2.0)
asin = lambda u: Num(math.asin(u), d(u) / math.sqrt(1.0 - float(u) ** 2.0))
acos = lambda u: Num(math.acos(u), -d(u) / math.sqrt(1.0 - float(u) ** 2.0))
atan = lambda u: Num(math.atan(u), d(u) / (1.0 + float(u) ** 2.0))
asinh = lambda u: Num(math.asinh(u), d(u) / math.hypot(u, 1.0))
acosh = lambda u: Num(math.acosh(u), d(u) / math.sqrt(float(u) ** 2.0 - 1.0))
atanh = lambda u: Num(math.atanh(u), d(u) / (1.0 - float(u) ** 2.0))
radians = lambda u: Num(math.radians(u), math.radians(d(u)))
degrees = lambda u: Num(math.degrees(u), math.degrees(d(u)))
erf = lambda u: Num(math.erf(u),
                    2.0 / math.sqrt(math.pi) * math.exp(-(float(u) ** 2.0)) * d(u))
erfc = lambda u: Num(math.erfc(u),
                    -2.0 / math.sqrt(math.pi) * math.exp(-(float(u) ** 2.0)) * d(u))
hypot = lambda u, v: Num(math.hypot(u, v),
                         (u * d(u) + v * d(v)) / math.hypot(u, v))
fsum = lambda u: Num(math.fsum(map(float, u)), math.fsum(map(d, u)))
fabs = lambda u: abs(Num(u))
fmod = lambda u, v: Num(u) % v
copysign = lambda u, v: Num(math.copysign(u, v),
            d(u) if math.copysign(1.0, float(u) * float(v)) > 0.0  else -d(u))
ceil = lambda u: Num(math.ceil(u), 0.0)
floor = lambda u: Num(math.floor(u), 0.0)
trunc = lambda u: Num(math.trunc(u), 0.0)
pi = Num(math.pi)
e = Num(math.e)

##  Backport Python 3 Math Module Functions  ###############################

if not hasattr(math, 'isclose'):
    math.isclose = lambda x, y, rel_tol=1e-09: abs(x/y - 1.0) <= rel_tol

if not hasattr(math, 'log2'):
    math.log2 = lambda x: math.log(x) / math.log(2.0)

##  Vector Functions  ######################################################

def partial(func, point, index):
    ''' Partial derivative at a given point

        >>> func = lambda x, y:  x*y + sin(x)
        >>> point = (2.5, 3.5)
        >>> partial(func, point, 0)             # Partial with respect to x
        2.6988563844530664
        >>> partial(func, point, 1)             # Partial with respect to y
        2.5

    '''
    return d(func(*[Num(x, i==index) for i, x in enumerate(point)]))

def gradient(func, point):
    ''' Vector of the partial derivatives of a scalar field

        >>> func = lambda x, y:  x*y + sin(x)
        >>> point = (2.5, 3.5)
        >>> gradient(func, point)
        (2.6988563844530664, 2.5)

        See:  https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?lk=3&i=grad(x*y+%2B+sin(x))

    '''
    return tuple(partial(func, point, index) for index in range(len(point)))

def directional_derivative(func, point, direction):
    ''' The dot product of the gradient and a direction vector.
        Computed directly with a single function call.

        >>> func = lambda x, y:  x*y + sin(x)
        >>> point = (2.5, 3.5)
        >>> direction = (1.5, -2.2)
        >>> directional_derivative(func, point, direction)
        -1.4517154233204006

        Same result as separately computing and dotting the gradient:
        >>> math.fsum(g * d for g, d in zip(gradient(func, point), direction))
        -1.4517154233204002

        See:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_derivative

    '''
    return d(func(*map(Num, point, direction)))

def divergence(F, point):
    ''' Sum of the partial derivatives of a vector field

        >>> F = lambda x, y, z: (x*y+sin(x)+3*x, x-y-5*x, cos(2*x)-sin(y)**2)
        >>> divergence(F, (3.5, 2.1, -3.3))
        3.163543312709203

        # http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=div+%7Bx*y%2Bsin(x)%2B3*x,+x-y-5*x,+cos(2*x)-sin(y)%5E2%7D
        >>> x, y, z = (3.5, 2.1, -3.3)
        >>> math.cos(x) + y + 2
        3.1635433127092036

        >>> F = lambda x, y, z: (8 * exp(-x), cosh(z), - y**2)
        >>> divergence(F, (2, -1, 4))
        -1.0826822658929016

        # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2rT2zK2bdo
        >>> x, y, z = (2, -1, 4)
        >>> -8 * math.exp(-x)
        -1.0826822658929016

    '''
    return math.fsum(d(F(*[Num(x, i==index) for i, x in enumerate(point)])[index])
                     for index in range(len(point)))

def curl(F, point):
    ''' Rotation around a vector field

        >>> F = lambda x, y, z: (x*y+sin(x)+3*x, x-y-5*x, cos(2*x)-sin(y)**2)
        >>> curl(F, (3.5, 2.1, -3.3))
        (0.8715757724135881, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)

        # http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=curl+%7Bx*y%2Bsin(x)%2B3*x,+x-y-5*x,+cos(2*x)-sin(y)%5E2%7D
        >>> x, y, z = (3.5, 2.1, -3.3)
        >>> (-2 * math.sin(y) * math.cos(y), 2 * math.sin(2 * x), -x - 4)
        (0.8715757724135881, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)

        # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UW4SQz29TDc
        >>> F = lambda x, y, z: (y**4 - x**2 * z**2, x**2 + y**2, -x**2 * y * z)
        >>> curl(F, (1, 3, -2))
        (2.0, -8.0, -106.0)

        >>> F = lambda x, y, z: (8 * exp(-x), cosh(z), - y**2)
        >>> curl(F, (2, -1, 4))
        (-25.289917197127753, 0.0, 0.0)

        # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2rT2zK2bdo
        >>> x, y, z = (2, -1, 4)
        >>> (-(x * y + math.sinh(z)), 0.0, 0.0)
        (-25.289917197127753, 0.0, 0.0)

    '''
    x, y, z = point
    _, Fyx, Fzx = map(d, F(Var(x), y, z))
    Fxy, _, Fzy = map(d, F(x, Var(y), z))
    Fxz, Fyz, _ = map(d, F(x, y, Var(z)))
    return (Fzy - Fyz, Fxz - Fzx, Fyx - Fxy)


if __name__ == '__main__':

    # River flow example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvzTEbp9lrc
    W = 20     # width of river in meters
    C = 0.1    # max flow divided by (W/2)**2
    F = lambda x, y=0, z=0:  (0.0, C * x * (W - x), 0.0)
    for x in range(W+1):
        print('%d --> %r' % (x, curl(F, (x, 0.0, 0.0))))

    def numeric_derivative(func, x, eps=0.001):
        'Estimate the derivative using numerical methods'
        y0 = func(x - eps)
        y1 = func(x + eps)
        return (y1 - y0) / (2.0 * eps)

    def test(x_array, *testcases):
        for f in testcases:
            print(f.__name__.center(40))
            print('-' * 40)
            for x in map(Var, x_array):
                y = f(x)
                actual = d(y)
                expected = numeric_derivative(f, x, 2**-16)
                print('%7.3f  %12.4f  %12.4f' % (x, actual, expected))
                assert math.isclose(expected, actual, rel_tol=1e-5)
            print('')

    def test_pow_const_base(x):
        return 3.1 ** (2.3 * x + 0.4)

    def test_pow_const_exp(x):
        return (2.3 * x + 0.4) ** (-1.3)

    def test_pow_general(x):
        return (x / 3.5) ** sin(3.5 * x)

    def test_hyperbolics(x):
        return 3 * cosh(1/x) + 5 * sinh(x/2.5) ** 2 - 0.7 * tanh(1.7/x) ** 1.5

    def test_sqrt(x):
        return cos(sqrt(abs(sin(x) + 5)))

    def test_conversions(x):
        return degrees(x ** 1.5 + 18) * radians(0.83 ** x + 37)

    def test_hypot(x):
        return hypot(sin(x), cos(1.1 / x))

    def test_erf(x):
        return (sin(x) * erf(x**0.85 - 3.123) +
                cos(x) * erfc(x**0.851 - 3.25))

    def test_rounders(x):
        return (tan(x) * floor(cos(x**2 + 0.37) * 2.7) +
                log(x) * ceil(cos(x**3 + 0.31) * 12.1) * 10.1 +
                exp(x) * trunc(sin(x**1.4 + 8.0)) * 1234.567)

    def test_inv_trig(x):
        return (atan((x - 0.303) ** 2.9 + 0.1234) +
                acos((x - 4.1) / 3.113) * 5 +
                asin((x - 4.3) / 3.717))

    def test_mod(x):
        return 137.1327 % (sin(x + 0.3) * 40.123) + cos(x) % 5.753

    def test_logs(x):
        return log2(fabs(sin(x))) + log10(fabs(cos(x))) + log1p(fabs(tan(x)))

    def test_fsum(x):
        import random
        random.seed(8675309)
        data = [Num(random.random()**x, random.random()**x) for i in range(100)]
        return fsum(data)

    def test_inv_hyperbolics(x):
        return (acosh(x**1.1234567 + 0.89) + 3.51 * asinh(x**1.234567 + 8.9) +
                atanh(x / 15.0823))

    def test_copysign(x):
        return (copysign(7.17 * x + 5.11, 1.0) + copysign(4.1 * x, 0.0) +
                copysign(8.909 * x + 0.18, -0.0) + copysign(4.321 * x + .12, -1.0) +
                copysign(-3.53 * x + 11.5, 1.0) + copysign(-1.4 * x + 2.1, 0.0) +
                copysign(-9.089 * x + 0.813, -0.0) + copysign(-1.2347 * x, -1.0) +
                copysign(sin(x), x - math.pi))

    def test_combined(x):
        return (1.7 - 3 * cos(x) ** 2 / sin(3 * x) * 0.1 * exp(+cos(x)) +
                sqrt(abs(x - 4.13)) + tan(2.5 * x) * log(3.1 * x**1.5) +
                (4.7 * x + 3.1) ** cos(0.43 * x + 8.1) - 2.9 + tan(-x) +
                sqrt(radians(log(x) + 1.7)) + e / x + expm1(x / pi))

    x_array = [2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5]
    tests =   [test_combined, test_pow_const_base, test_pow_const_exp,
               test_pow_general, test_hyperbolics, test_sqrt, test_copysign,
               test_inv_trig, test_conversions, test_hypot, test_rounders,
               test_inv_hyperbolics, test_mod, test_logs, test_fsum, test_erf]
    test(x_array, *tests)

    # Run doctests when the underlying C math library matches the one used to
    # generate the code examples (the approximation algorithms vary slightly).
    if 2 + math.sinh(4) == 29.289917197127753:
        import doctest
        print(doctest.testmod())

3 comments

Robin Becker 8 years, 1 month ago  # | flag

I did a lot of work in automatic differentiation back in the 1980's. It's nice to see this in python.

I wonder what kind of machine you are running on or if my python is compiled differently. On my arch linux x64 machine I see these failures caused by some difference in accuracy

File "autodifferentials.py", line 44, in __main__.Num
Failed example:
    y.dx                                # f'(1.5)
Expected:
    2.88631746797551
Got:
    2.8863174679755095
**********************************************************************
File "autodifferentials.py", line 250, in __main__.curl
Failed example:
    curl(F, (3.5, 2.1, -3.3))
Expected:
    (0.8715757724135881, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)
Got:
    (0.8715757724135882, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)
**********************************************************************
File "autodifferentials.py", line 255, in __main__.curl
Failed example:
    (-2 * math.sin(y) * math.cos(y), 2 * math.sin(2 * x), -x - 4)
Expected:
    (0.8715757724135881, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)
Got:
    (0.8715757724135882, 1.3139731974375781, -7.5)
**********************************************************************
File "autodifferentials.py", line 264, in __main__.curl
Failed example:
    curl(F, (2, -1, 4))
Expected:
    (-25.289917197127753, 0.0, 0.0)
Got:
    (-25.28991719712775, 0.0, 0.0)
**********************************************************************
File "autodifferentials.py", line 269, in __main__.curl
Failed example:
    (-(x * y + math.sinh(z)), 0.0, 0.0)
Expected:
    (-25.289917197127753, 0.0, 0.0)
Got:
    (-25.28991719712775, 0.0, 0.0)
**********************************************************************
2 items had failures:
   1 of   9 in __main__.Num
   4 of  10 in __main__.curl
***Test Failed*** 5 failures.
TestResults(failed=5, attempted=39)
Raymond Hettinger (author) 8 years, 1 month ago  # | flag

Older versions of Python had a slightly different repr for the same floating point values. The other issue is that different Python builds link to different underlying C math libraries which sometimes give slightly different results (i.e. they might use different approximations to estimate sinh()).

Unfortunately, doctest looks for exact string matches and has no notion of two floats being very close to each other.

FF SS 7 years, 3 months ago  # | flag

Hello, how do I use your library for getting the second derivative of a function (third, and so on)?

For example:

f(x) = sin(x)

f'(x) = cos(x) "first derivative"

f''(x) = f'(f'(x)) = -sin(x) "third derivative"

f'''(x) = f'(f''(x)) = ... "fourth derivative"

I've used the following instructions, but I'm unable to get past the first derivative:

>>> f = lambda x: sin(x)
>>> y = f(Var(1))
>>> y
0.8414709848078965
>>> y.dx
0.5403023058681397
>>> d(y)
0.5403023058681397
>>> d(d(y))          #doesn't seem to work
0.0
>>> g = lambda x: cos(x)
>>> z = g(Var(1))
>>> z
0.5403023058681397
>>> z.dx
-0.8414709848078965 #equivalent to f''(sin(x)) = -sin(x)

Thanks